Lesson #3: Respect the Law

Ethics are moral standards for appropriate conduct agreed upon and upheld by societies and communities.  Laws are standards and regulations enforced by government.  Often ethics influence laws.  Ethical guidelines focus on an individual voluntarily doing what is right and benefits the greater good as defined by the virtues of the community or culture.  Legal regulations focus on defining acceptable behaviors and punishing unacceptable behaviors as determined by the governing authority.

LAWS

There are many laws that protect information.  For example, HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act) laws protect personal health information handled by health care providers, health plans, and health care clearinghouses.  HIPAA laws are enforced by imposing fines and imprisonment to violators. 

While HIPAA protects privacy, other laws protect intellectual property from theft.  Patents grant the exclusive rights to make and sell an invention to the creator or patent-holder.  Patents allow the patent-holder to reap the benefits (profit and credit) for the invention for a limited period of time and make it unlawful to steal the invention for personal gain.

Trademarks also help protect the integrity of brands.  A trademark is a logo or other type of label that identifies a particular brand, organization, or company to the consumer.  Products, services and communication bearing this trademark carry with them the reputation of that brand, organization or company.  It is unlawful to label a product or service with a trademark belonging to another brand, organization or company.

Copyrights protect original creative works, specifically: literary works, movies, music, software, choreography, architectural designs, artwork, and compilations or other derivative works.  Copyright law grants the creator or copyright-holder for a limited time the exclusive rights to reproduce and distribute the work, create derivative works, and publicly perform, display or broadcast the work.  This allows the copyright holder to gain the benefits of the work and makes it unlawful to steal the creation for personal gain.  Because copyright includes the right to distribute the work, it is also a violation to share copies of copyright-protected works.

In order to use a copyright protected work, one must have permission.  Permission often includes obtaining a license and/or paying a fee.  Using a copyright-protected work without permission is called copyright infringement or piracy, and can result in civil suits and/or criminal consequences.  There are several famous copyright infringement cases described on the Copyright Website.

There are situations, however, under which one may use small portions of a copyrightable work without getting permission: education and fair use.  Education is described to include face-to-face instruction in a traditional classroom and also online distance education.  The law takes care to describe in detail what is not considered a violation, but it is important to note that merely calling the use “educational” does not mean it is covered under this exception.  Fair use outlines use that is fair to both the copyright holder and the user using four guidelines.  The use cannot be for commercial, entertainment or profit purposes.  Fair use targets works that are factual in nature or research oriented and already published.  The amount of work used must be small and cannot be the heart of the work.  Finally, the use cannot have an impact on the market or market value for the work.   

Works in the public domain are also free to use without permission.  The public domain refers to works for which the copyright has expired or the copyright holder has relinquished rights.  All works created prior to 1923 are now in the public domain.  Most works created by the United States government are also public domain.

Applying for patent or trademark protection can be a lengthy process.  But, an original work is covered by copyright law as soon as it is in a fixed, tangible medium of expression.  Although registration and notice of copyright are not required, they are highly advised.  Registering with the US Copyright Office provides documentation of ownership, and notification provides documentation of intent to defend rights granted by the law.  For more information about copyright law, check out the US Copyright Office or this overview in plain English provided by Purdue University Copyright Office.

ETHICS

In addition to regulating laws, ethics cover other behaviors regarding information.  While some ethics are simply behaving with courtesy and respect, others are enforced by communities and organizations by their own policies.  In many cases, ethics and laws overlap.

For example, laws make it illegal to use another’s intellectual property without permission.  Even with permission, ethics make it unacceptable to use another’s intellectual property without attribution, crediting the creator.  Ethically, calling information one’s own, either explicitly or implicitly by failing to give credit, is considered a form of theft.  Plagiarism is presenting words or ideas derived from an existing source as one’s own.  Plagiarism is generally enforced by academic institutions and professional organizations by expelling, firing, or shunning the plagiarizers from the organization or field.

Plagiarism

Plagiarism is considered a form of theft and a form of dishonesty and encompasses a wide range of actions.  Some intentional forms of plagiarism include (1) buying a term paper and submitting as one’s own, (2) downloading a free term paper and submitting it as one’s own, (3) copying another student’s work and turning it in as one’s own, and (4) getting another student to complete one’s work and turning that in as one’s own.  In each of these examples, the plagiarizer intentionally failed to do his or her own work.

However, there are inadvertent forms of plagiarism as well including (1) copying from a source and omitting quotation punctuation, (2) copying from a source with quotation punctuation but failing to credit the source, (3) paraphrasing from a source without crediting the source, (4) incorrectly paraphrasing or quoting, and (5) insufficient or incorrect attribution.  In each of these examples, the plagiarizer attempted to do his or her own work, but failed to borrow words or ideas ethically and correctly.

In order to use the words or ideas of another ethically, one must correctly quote, correctly paraphrase, and correctly credit the source.  In order to use these legally, permission is required in many cases.  For more information on avoiding plagiarism, correct quoting, correct paraphrasing, and correct attribution, see the Plagiarism Supplemental Lesson.

E-mail Etiquette

Etiquette describes a code of socially-acceptable or expected behavior.  Unfortunately, if we trace the history of e-mail, we will find that it spread well ahead of any associated rules of etiquette.  As a result, e-mail has become some of the most widely misused and inconsiderate and informal means of communication akin to text messages.  However, applying appropriate etiquette can both improve effective communication and enhance safety and security.  

First, one must understand why e-mail looks the way it does.  To do this, we have to go back to a time before e-mail when we had only paper memos.  E-mail was not originally created so we can chat with our friends and relatives; it was created from a Defense Department project.  Rather than bore you with the historical details, the point I’m getting at is that the e-mail form was designed to mimic and replace a traditional memo.  Therefore, e-mail is more effective if one embraces the memo format.

First, there are three header fields that accept e-mail addresses for recipients.  Although your message will be received by e-mail addresses entered in any of these three fields, the meaning associated with each is very different.  Like a paper memo, names or addresses listed in the “To” field represent those individuals to whom the message is directly addressed.  These are the people whose names will be listed in the greeting in the body of the message.  The names or addresses listed in the “CC” field, are those individuals who will receive a copy, but to whom the message is not directly addressed.  This allows for a record of who else received this message.  Finally, the “BCC” field is for e-mail addresses of those to whom the information is not directly addressed and for whom no record of receiving the message will be kept.  Think of it as slapping the memo on the photocopier and handing it out; no one knows to whom it was given.  The “BCC” field has also taken on a new use in e-mail: when sending to groups when it is not important to document to others who received the information.  This helps keep e-mail addresses safe from phishing and is especially important when all recipients do not know each other.

Second, provide a useful and informative subject to help the recipient prioritize messages.  A subject should be a short heading, like a newspaper heading, that describes the content or main point of the message.  When the subject of the e-mail conversation changes, one should change the subject accordingly.  This helps e-mailers to locate old messages more quickly.

Third, structure the message appropriately.  Include a greeting restating the intended recipients’ names.  When writing the message, check spelling and grammar.  Do not type in all capital letters; this is the equivalent of screaming and is more difficult to read.  If it is professional communication, do not include emoticons (those smiley faces made from keyboard characters).  Instead, rely on strong writing, grammar and vocabulary to convey the tone.  Check the tone before sending the message; sarcasm does not often makes its way through e-mails and text messages as it was originally intended.  If there are attached files, explain what one is attaching in the message; do not force the recipient to guess whether one meant to send the file or if it may be a virus.  Also include a closing to set the tone and verify the message is complete.  Lastly, identify oneself; do not rely on one’s e-mail address alone to identify one.

Fourth, before sending, always re-read and be sure the message one intends to send it the message conveyed.  E-mail messages are intended to be on the shorter side.  Lengthier messages might be better formatted in an attached file rather than the body of the message.  Think before sending.  Remember, e-mail is not necessarily private.  Once sent, the message can be saved, copied, forwarded, discussed, and passed around.  Additionally, emotionally charged messages can cause more harm than good. 

Finally, when receiving e-mail messages and text messages, be selective about forwarding.  Remember, sending chain letters violates many IT and service use policies.  Additionally, it wastes the recipient’s time and could propagate misinformation.  If one does forward information, he or she should take the time to explain why he or she is doing so rather than just clicking forward and selecting an address.  This shows the recipient that one is not wasting his or her time, but consciously chose to share information.  Also, be selective about replying to all.  When one replies to all, the reply is sent not only to the original sender, but to all of the recipients of the original message to which one is replying.  If one doesn’t know all of the original recipients, it can be dangerous to share certain information in the message.

This post is under construction.

Next Lesson: TBD

Previous Lesson: Stay Safe

Also recommended: Avoiding Plagiarism

Lesson #2: Stay Safe

Staying safe includes protecting yourself, protecting your information, and protecting others.  Since much information transfer is electronic, we will discuss tips for Internet safety.  We will also discuss safety in real life, too.  In either case, some commonsense tactics begin with questioning all the information one receives.  Often if it seems to good to be true, it probably is.

Internet & Computer Safety Introduction

Staying safe on the Internet requires both commonsense and protection tools such as antivirus software and firewalls.  What we call the Internet, is merely a giant network of interconnected computers.  Some computers store information that is made available to others over this network.  These are called servers because they “serve” information.  Other computers that receive this served information are called clients.  The client computers receive and display this information using software called an Internet browser.   Examples of Internet browsers include Internet Explorer, Firefox, and Safari.  The information is generally served in the form of a web site composed of multiple web pages that often pull content on demand from a database of information.  However, it is important to understand that your computer is receiving much more information that what you are actually seeing in the browser window.

The most important aspect of this client-server relationship to understand from a safety perspective is that your computer is connected to a “web” of interconnected networks from all over the world that are constantly sending and receiving information.  When connected to the Internet, your computer receives information and occasionally sends information in order to view web pages.  This information transfer is generally not secure and since it occurs on a global level, there are no global rules or laws governing it.  Therefore, each user is charged with safe surfing, ethical online behavior, and protecting his or her information from threats.

Surfing and Search Engines

Surfing is viewing web content by clicking on hyperlinks to get to new web pages.  Surfers must understand that every time they click on a hyperlink, they are taking a chance that the web site they are accessing will be safe.

Since information on the Internet comes from billions of different sources, some companies have built businesses around indexing online content.  Search engines such as Google or Bing have software that crawls the web essentially taking snapshots of online web pages and other information, and then sending it back to a giant database.  This allows users to search online content without having to know the web address or URL (Uniform Resource Locator) to view web content.    Internet content changes regularly, so the links may be outdated.  Additionally, the search engine software often relies on tags to properly categorize content.  Malicious individuals often tag viruses, spyware, scams, and pornography with popular unrelated tags to lure unsuspecting surfers.  

Online Personal Safety

First, Internet users must understand that there are malicious individuals out there using online resources to steal, scam, and commit other crimes.  The FBI has issued a guide to help parents monitor their children’s online activities and keep them safe.  But it can also help alert adult users to the threats that lurk online.  The Internet is merely one more way for scammers and identity thieves to reach victims.

Identity Theft

Another threat that is enhanced by the Internet is identity theft.  Identity theft, according to the Federal Trade Commission, is when someone uses another’s personally identifying information, such as credit card number, name or social security number, to commit fraud or another crime.  Identity thieves use a variety of methods, including online tactics, to obtain this information and can cost the victim a lot of money and hassle as a result.   To learn more about Identity Theft, how it occurs and how to prevent becoming a victim, read the web site by the Federal Trade Commission.

Privacy

When connected to the Internet, your computer and all the information stored on it are exposed.  One may not realize how much information may be stored on one’s computer.  For example, when a surfer views Internet pages, temporary Internet files may be stored on his or her computer to make the browsing experience more efficient.  These cached files make pages load faster and also give a limited amount of offline access.

Cookies are another type of information stored on your computer.  A cookie is a small file that contains information about how a surfer uses the Internet.  It allows web sites to personalize the experience, but also can compromise privacy.  One can set his or her computer to prohibit cookies, but this action will prevent site that require cookies from loading and being viewed.

In order to keep information private, the best method is to limit the information available.  Never give out personal information such as address, location, phone numbers, birth date, credit card numbers, bank account numbers, etc. over the Internet.  Even Facebook can be a very tempting place to forget these rules with their location tagging and free speech forum.  Never send sensitive information such as account numbers over e-mail either.  As far as social security numbers, the general rule is never give that out to anyone for any reason except for getting a new job or similar situations.

Strong Passwords

Another method for staying safe is protecting passwords.  One of the primary means that online theft happens is by hacking or stealing passwords.  Using strong passwords that are lengthy combinations of numbers, letters, symbols and cases reduce the likelihood of password hacks.  Experts also advise against using easy to figure out passwords such as pets’ names, addresses, birthdays, etc.  Never store passwords in a single file or in a place easily accessible by thieves.  And, as tempting as it might be, never share your password with others.  

Caution & Commonsense

The best defense is using caution and commonsense. Surfers should never open web sites that he or she does not confidently trust.  The recipient of an e-mail message (even if the message is from someone he or she knows) should neither trust nor forward the information without first checking into it.  Sites like Snopes.com allow the user to search for common Internet scams and viruses to find out which are legitimate.  Understanding the tactics of a scam can help one avoid some of these threats as well.  Also, if one uses social networking services like Facebook, be sure that the privacy settings limit who can see personal information.  Even with these privacy settings, it is important to understand that if it exists, a hacker can find it, regardless of the settings.  

Manage Digital Identity

Managing one’s digital identity refers to selectively uploading and monitoring existing online information about oneself.  The information that is available online about an individual (from public databases like phone directories, Facebook, etc.) sends a message about that person’s overall character that is available to the general public including potential employers, current employers, police, and even grandparents. The best management technique is choosing only to post information that one wants publicly available in the first place.  

Regardless of privacy settings and policies, any information that is posted or stored online is at risk.  Information  that one posts can be viewed and shared by friends.  Also, friends may post information about one that can threaten one’s digital identity.  It is important not only to choose friends wisely, but to make sure they are not damaging one’s digital identity.  Once a person puts information online, even if he or she later removes it, it was already at risk for being saved, cached, copied, shared, read, forwarded, etc.  The user looses control over where the information goes as soon as it is shared with at least one other person.  Thanks to caching and the  Internet Archive Wayback Machine, Internet content can remain forever.  One can be held legally liable for information posted online indicating libel or other involvement in criminal activity. 

Computer Threats

Several computer threats are also enhanced through the Internet.  A computer virus is a program written to launch an unexpected, often malicious, effect on the user and/or host computer.  A worm is a type of virus that self-replicates, either to send itself to other computers, or to take over one’s hard drive.  A Trojan Horse is a virus that pretends to be something good to entice the user to execute (run) the program, then unleashes its attack.

While some viruses are only meant to annoy the user, others are maliciously designed to destroy the computer files.  Some, such as spyware, search the infected computer for personal information or contacts to be used to commit crimes such as theft or fraud.  Some similar programs, such as adware, use similar designs not to steal, but to target advertising to the personal preferences of the user.

Pop-ups are another potential threat.  A pop up is a self-launching window that opens when a surfer views a web page or clicks on a hyperlink.  Often, pop ups are only advertisements.  However, they are occasionally a tool used by scammers and virus/spyware makers to lure the surfer into clicking on a seemingly harmless link (such as winning a prize, printing a popular coupon, or pretending to be a virus warning).  Most browsers can be set to block pop ups, but some web sites require pop ups to be enabled.

Computer Protection

There are several steps that can protect your computer.  Installing and regularly updated anti-virus software will block, delete or quarantine viruses and infected files.  Since viruses are created every day and can hitch rides anywhere on the Internet, the anti-virus software must be regularly updated.

A firewall is software that filters incoming information and can prevent spyware requests and other “hidden” programs from running over the Internet.  The level of filtering can be set by the user depending on the desired level of control.

Many Internet Service Providers (ISP) include security software with their service package at no additional fee .  One definitely gets what one pays for with computer protection, and these fee-based security suites such as Norton or McAfee have resources to offer the best protection.   They often package other security software such as password protection, identity protection, etc. to enhance user safety.

Secure Browsing and Shopping and Banking

Never shop online using a computer that is not protected.  Only make online purchases from trusted websites over a secure connection (noted by the “s” in the https rather than the usual http in the URL).  Take additional steps by paying with PayPal or using a secure credit card number rather than a debit card number or untraceable gift card.  One should also monitor accounts to ensure that the only charges are ones that he or she personally made.

When banking and paying bills online, always type in the financial institution address directly.  Scammers and identity thieves will often steal logos from financial institutions and merchants, and then send e-mail messages alerting customers of an alleged account issue.  The phony message provided hyperlinks to log directly into the account.  In most cases, the hyperlink only sends login information to the thieves.  Merchants and financial institutions will never ask for your password up front via phone or Internet.  If one is uncertain, end the phone conversation or e-mail.  Then contact the merchant or financial institution directly via phone or going to their website to verify.  

Site Hijacking

Finally, one should always be on the lookout for anything that seems a bit off.  Site hijacking occurs when the connection is rerouted to a site that looks real but the address is a bit different or not all of the links on the site work.  This is usually a form that is displayed to get the user to enter usernames, passwords or other information that will be sent to the thieves rather than the intended website.  If unsure, close the browser and type in the address again.

Conclusion

Safety is fueled by information and caution.  The same threats that exist in real life exist in the virtual word, but have real life consequences.  One should always know where he or she is in cyberspace, and should not trust every web site.  One should keep personal information private, update protection software regularly, question everything, and he or she can minimize information threats.

This post is under construction.

Next Lesson: Respect the Law

Previous Lesson: Question Everything

Lesson #1: Question Everything

The first step to understanding and becoming information literate is to question everything.  We are surrounded by information, whether we acknowledge it or not.  Throughout any given day there is a good chance that you turned on the radio, watched some TV, logged onto the Internet, talked with another human being, read a sign, and so on.  We rely on information to get through the day, whether it is new information or information we already have.

Unfortunately, not all of the information out there is good, or reliable, or true, or complete.  Most of the information one encounters was designed with a specific purpose in mind, and that purpose drives every aspect of its form, how and where it was made available and how you came upon it.  Behind every purpose, is also an element of persuasion.  Much of our elementary and secondary education dedicated analysis of information to sorting out so-called informative sources from persuasive sources.  But the truth is that all information sources are persuasive.  They are designed to change or reinforce behaviors or beliefs.

Take the example of a government sponsored nutrition guideline poster.  On the surface, this appears benign and informative.  But now that we know informative doesn’t really exist, we can look at the purpose and persuasive nature of this information source.  Keep in mind, persuasive does not necessarily mean inaccurate.  In this case, the concept of the nutrition guidelines presented are probably fairly good advice.  (Of course, if we look closer at how these guidelines have changed over time, we find that more than carefully collected data went into their formation.  Political and economic factors heavily shaped the current form of these guidelines.)  Nevertheless, why do these exist?  Why is the government spending tax dollars to educate the public on healthy eating?  The answer is simple; to persuade them to eat healthier or reinforce their current healthy habits.  Why?  Well, without getting into a lengthy political discussion, healthier people require fewer medical accommodations, which means are less costly, and can work, which means earn income and contribute to both the economy and the national treasury.  In other words, it benefits the government (ultimately all the people that government represents) to encourage healthy eating habits.

Misleading Information

Now that we understand the persuasive element in all information, we are able to focus on the types of information that can be harmful.  There are four categories of information that can lead the recipient to incorrect conclusions and ultimately to bad decisions.  The first is misinformation. Misinformation is information that is in some way incorrect, inaccurate or untrue, but the provider of this information believes it is true and correct and accurate.  Misinformation runs through the general public like wildfire.  Why?  Because upon receiving this information, no one questions it.  Each individual takes it at face value, then shares it, propagating the problem.  For example, think of a child informing another child that if he behaves, Santa Claus will leave presents under his Christmas Tree; the child believes that Santa Claus is real and leave presents for good little girls and boys.

Second is disinformation.  Disinformation, is the same incorrect, inaccurate or untrue information that we find in misinformation.  The difference is that the provider of this information knows it it not true or accurate or correct; the supplier is lying with intent to deceive.  Why?  Usually disinformation has a distinct agenda behind it.  Disinformation can change consumer perceptions of a particular brand product, can sway political views, and motivate people to take unnecessary precautions.  A great deal of disinformation is malicious; however, that is not always the case.  For example, think of the parents who tell their child that if he behaves, Santa Claus will leave presents under his Christmas Tree; the parents know this is not true, but want to manipulate the child’s beliefs either to encourage him to behave and/or to enhance his holiday experience.

Third, biased information may be accurate but presented in a way that makes it difficult to interpret as anything other than what was intended. Bias does not describe the information itself’; bias describes how the information is presented.  Unfortunately, everything has bias.  Yes, everything.  Why?  Because the information we have available was created, written, analyzed by, and distributed by human beings who, despite our best attempts to be objective (uh, another concept that doesn’t really exist), we can only see things through our own eyes, our own perspective and can only interpret them through our own knowledge, understanding and experiences.  Since everything has some degree of bias to it, we can’t view this as an either it is or it isn’t phenomenon.  Instead, picture a spectrum with minimal bias on one end, and so much bias one cannot interpret the information any way other than how it is presented.  For example, I could compile a list of facts, that although accurate, all focus on supporting the conclusion I want the reader to reach and are arranged to help him step towards that goal.

Minimal Bias ——– Moderate Bias ——–Too Much Bias

Lastly, incomplete information can cause as much or more damage than the previous three.  Why?  Incorrect information appears accurate and, often, minimally biased.  Additionally, the recipient often is unaware that there is more information available.  This can lead to individuals making decisions on only pieces of information representing only a small part of the whole picture.  For example, a doctor prescribing medicine to a patient assumes that she disclosed all the medications she was taking.  The patient did not consider an herbal supplement or a vitamin supplement medications and failed to mention them.  So the doctor prescribes a medication under the assumption that there will be no interactions.  The patient then takes only the doctor’s advice, and fails to read the possible interaction information distributed with the medication.  Within 24 hours, the patient is having a severe reaction that could have easily been prevented.  Both the doctor and the patient operated on incomplete information to make decisions.

Some Questionable Information

There are many types of information one encounters, and often relies on, every day.  However, simply identifying some types of common information can alert us to question it before we accept it and rely on it to make decisions.  At the top of the list are opinions and prejudice.  Each of these is questionable because, while there is a chance it could be accurate, complete and minimally biased, there is also a good chance it is only some or none of those.  When we talk about opinions, we often compare them to facts.  Facts are pieces of information that are generally accepted by society as a whole to be accurate representations of reality.  This definition does not place facts into a category of absolute truth; facts can change.  (Once upon a time, Pluto was a planet, and the earth was flat.)  An opinion, then, is not generally accepted by society as a whole and varies from individual to individual.   Similarly, prejudice, or drawing a conclusion prior to actually learning or experiencing the event, is predicated upon an opinion and in many cases incomplete information.  We often relegate prejudice to socio-political topics like gender discrimination and racism, but prejudice can be much simpler.  The best example I can offer is the three-year-old child who knows, by looking at food before he tries it, whether he will or will not like how it tastes.

Rumors are also problematic.  Rumors, although they could be accurate, often are not because they are (1) based on limited information, often out of context, (2) unconfirmed, and (3) propagated by a “word of mouth” system.  Everyone has played whisper down the lane; the story at the end rarely matches the story at the start.

Superstitions are another questionable type of information.  Superstitions endure due to a wide-spread belief, limited anecdotal evidence, and lack of concrete evidence to the contrary.  So, every time a driver crashed a green car through the 20th century, it upheld the superstition that green was a bad omen.  (Fortunately, sponsor money eventually trumped superstitious death and disaster threats, and this superstition has for the most part dissolved.)  Other superstitions still survive.  I myself cannot entirely dismiss the eeriness of a cardinal, who after spending weeks flying into the windows and hanging around the house making a mess, suddenly vanished when the family dog died.  (No, the dog did not eat the cardinal.)

Some other types of questionable information rely on misinformation, disinformation, biased information and/or incorrect information to intentionally sway, and in some cases harm, the recipient.  There are several reasons hoaxes, counterfeit sites, and scams are created and spread.  Snopes.com suggests that most hoaxes result from a misguided attempt to pass along seemingly important information, an attempt to gain a profit from the recipient, or simple malicious intent.  Hoaxes are stories that are not true, but are believable enough to make the recipient pass it on and/or modify behavior.  The recipient does not have to fully buy into a hoax; merely believing that it might or could be true is enough to be effective.  One example from the many archived by Snopes.com is the warning about flesh-eating bacteria tainted bananas coming into the country.  

Counterfeit sites, a rare type of disinformation, are websites that are designed to convince the reader they are legitimate and provide accurate information.  (These should not be confused with “unofficial sites” that provide valuable information despite their lack of sponsorship.)  The surface of the site is designed to pass all of the reader’s checks for verifying the quality of information.  Intentional, and often malicious, disinformation is then embedded deeper into the website.  Since the site has already gained the reader’s trust, the reader is more likely to accept the disinformation as fact.  The only way to guard against counterfeit sites is to take the time to verify any new information against another trusted source.

Scams are a malicious attempt to obtain identifying information and/or money from the victim.  Scams often rely on disinformation, high pressure sales tactics, limited time frames to act, and appeals to emotion.  Scams can be very dangerous and costly to the individual and the economy.  The FBI’s website Scams & Safety describes some known scams and provides some information on how to guard against becoming a victim of a scam.  Fortunately, one can identify most scams with a bit of discernment.  Many scammers rely on pre-texting, attempting to gain information under false pretenses.  Examples include claiming the victim won a prize in a drawing he or she does not remember entering; pretending to be a financial institution asking for account numbers, passwords, etc. to resolve some urgent issue, and even posing as a municipal authority and sending the victim false fines to pay.  Keep in mind, not all high pressure sales are scams.  The man who took out a loan to purchase a time share in Italy may have buyer’s remorse, but he actually gets one week of vacation; the victim of a scam gets nothing in return for the funds or information taken from him.

Not all questionable information is as harmful or dangerous as hoaxes and scams.  However, information like propaganda surrounds us and influences decisions we make on a daily basis.  Propaganda is information designed and distributed with the purpose of either supporting and promoting oneself or one’s own cause, or damaging and harming an opposing cause.  We are constantly exposed to propaganda.  In any given day, the number of advertisements we encounter via radio, TV, signs, text, phone or Internet is crazy!  The purpose behind this propaganda is to make the product or service look good, which means using information that meets that goal, omitting or downplaying information that does not, and distributing the information is a way that reaches its intended audience.  This purpose automatically adds a layer of bias to propaganda.

Lastly, this discussion would not be complete without mentioning chain letters.  Chain letters are not a type of information, rather they are a vessel for distributing information.  They can contain any type of information, or nothing useful whatsoever.  Their designed with the purpose of manipulating the recipient not only to pass it on, but to multiply it in the process.  This design is accomplished by three components.  The hook gets the recipient’s attention and convinces him or her to continue reading.  The request is literally some form of a request to pass it on, often implying to more than one person.  The threat is the idea promoted explicitly or implicitly that either something good the recipient believes might happen  if he or she sends it on, or something bad that the recipient believes might happen if he or she does not.  This combination makes chain letters irresistible, and results in quick, exponential propagation of the contained information. There are two harmful effects of chain letters.  First, if the chain letter contains misinformation or disinformation, this incorrect information can spread very quickly.  Second, chain letters take up a huge amount of server space and bandwidth.  For this reason, most IT polices forbid users from forwarding or sending chain letters over their system.

On one final note, simply identifying questionable information for your personal use is not enough.  We are also responsible for the information we spread and pass on to others.  When we share information we are participating in a broader information exchange and may not know how far it will spread.  We could be the cause of some less discerning person believing and making bad decisions or encountering other harm as a result of information we provided.  

Next Lesson: Stay Safe

In Defense of the Library

I am not a librarian.  I never studied library science.  With my collection of assorted degrees, I worked in a library for over eight years teaching a two-credit, required Information Literacy course.  This post is not so much about the course or my teaching, but the library itself.  As an “outsider”  to this organization, I observed a self-destructive phenomenon of self-preservation among the librarians and of active ownership of all things information literacy.

Let me back up for a minute and explain where I’m coming from here.   Once upon a time there was a small shop that sold and serviced typewriters.  This shop was directly threatened when smaller and more affordable computers equipped with word processing software and printers entered the market.  The typewriter shop had to act to preserve itself or go out of business.  Survival may be an instinct, but self-identity is not.  So, the shop had two choices.  If it identified itself as solely a typewriter shop, it could launch a campaign to publicize the superiority of typewriters over personal computers.  On the other hand, if it identified itself as providing a means for customers to create documents at home, it could simply upgrade its inventory to include these new “tools” for creating documents.  In one scenario, the shop ultimate fails.  In the other, it has a competitive chance of surviving.

The traditional library faces the same dilemma.  Library is changing in form, atmosphere, and content.  The former model of library is the one with which we are most familiar.  We go to the quiet library to study, to read books from shelves, and to research established information resources.  This model worked for a long time.  Most information was in some sort of tangible form, so we had to physically go to the collection to interact with it.  Because it was more advantageous for people to use these tangible information forms within the library, making them more readily available to other users, we maintained a quiet environment.   Whenever someone needed to do research, we knew to point the researcher in the direction of already established, vetted resources that were easily identified by physical form.  We had a language surrounding this model.  (Book did not describe the content, but the form.)

But today, the trends have shifted.  The library collections converted from shelves to databases, and the card-catalog to a computer.  The Internet sneaked in and absorbed even the scholarly information while no one was looking.  The physical distinctions formerly used for sorting out the elite resources are gone; everything appears to the researcher as a webpage.  There is no inherent organization, no covers to judge, to physical forms, only raw, extracted information on demand 24-7.  Why then do we need a library?  Or a librarian?

And so, librarians noticed that this transition jeopardized their quiet, organized, controlled existence.  Unfortunately, many retained their former identities and began campaigns about why library  resources are better than the Internet (they’re not always).  They justified that they are the only ones who can possibly share information literacy with the rest of the world, thus locking it in a library prison.  They continued to use outdated terms describing a physical form the information no longer had.  The librarians felt threatened and stood guard over their libraries, their jobs, and their identities quietly refusing to adapt and imagining purpose to their continued endeavors.  Their instruction became a defense of the library.  And, in effect, they lost touch with the rest of us.

The truth is that scenario is not the only option.  Someone still has to manage and provide all this information, whatever form it may take.  Someone still needs to help researchers navigate through the global information exchange.  Someone needs to help them sort out the good from the unreliable.  And this is no longer this image of a quiet building, it is a conversation.  It is a conversation about the individual and his or her specific need for information.  We do need librarians; they are just going about convincing us of that in the wrong way.

We need to break information literacy out of the library prison.  Everyone can and should become information literate.  But to do that, we need to destroy the culture and mindset that traps information literacy in academia and librarians in the past.  Libraries must be able and willing to adapt to the changing methods of supplying information services.  If that means tearing down the quiet “walls” of shelves, and replacing them with noisy tables, laptops, and vending machines, so be it.  And we must set information literacy free to run throughout the curriculum of educational institutions, and keep running out into the streets of the general public.